Features of the civilization of ancient Egypt. Egyptian civilization Periods of history of Ancient Egypt

One of the oldest centers of civilization was the northeastern region of the African continent, where at the end of the 4th - beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. The state of the ancient Egyptians emerged. The climate of the country is such that in most of its territory the Nile is the only source of life. The vegetation of Egypt during the historical period was not very diverse. Since, with limited irrigated land, every plot suitable for growing cultivated plants was used, there was almost no room left for wild ones. The absence of wood was made up for with stone and clay, which were widely used in construction work. On the territory of Egypt there were rich deposits of limestone, granite, alabaster, slate and other minerals. Reserves of gold and copper were insignificant.

The creation of a continuous economic life cycle was based on the process irrigation. Therefore, the state structure arose as a form of providing irrigation on the scale of Nome. The irrigation economy is the earliest example of a command and distribution system. Since manual excavation work was extremely labor-intensive, and material incentives did not work in a subsistence economy, the management of these works had to be not only centralized, but also deified. Therefore, religion and priests played a large role in managing the economy. In the social pyramid, the priest (or the bearer of knowledge, the ideologist) occupied the leading place. The state was the supreme owner of all irrigated lands. Peasant communities had the right of inheritance for payment in kind, the amount of which was established according to the biological harvest, i.e. was determined before the harvest by officials. The direct producer in irrigation systems was the peasant, legally free, but obliged to the state for labor violations. The production labor of slaves could not be used, because there was a surplus of labor resources.

Religion in Ancient Egypt formed from numerous local cults. With the political advancement of one or another nome, the deity of this city also came to the forefront of history. Features of the religious views of the Egyptians are the simultaneous existence of anthropo- and zoomorphic deities, as well as syncretism, which allowed the unification of two or more gods and the transfer of qualities and properties of one to the other. The religious cults of the Egyptians, from their origin to their disappearance, were closely intertwined with magic. The pantheon of the most famous Egyptian gods includes: Anubis, Bastet, Isis, Mantu, Min, Nefertum, Osiris, Sebek, Set, Sukhnet, Thoth, Hathor, Khnum, Horus and many others. It should be noted the importance of the funeral cult of the ancient Egyptians, which found expression in the construction of funerary complexes (mastabas, pyramids and tombs) and mummification of bodies.

In ancient Egypt it was believed that the world is chaos, the primeval abyss of water - Nun. Out of the chaos came the gods who created the earth, sky, people, animals and plants. The first god was the sun. There were ideas according to which the sky is a water surface, the heavenly Nile, along which the sun flows around the earth during the day. There is also a Nile underground, along which the sun floats at night. The embodiment of the earth in some nomes was the god Geb, in others - Aker. The Nile, which flowed on earth, was personified in the image of the god Hapi, who contributed to the harvest with his beneficial floods. The Nile itself was also inhabited by good and evil deities in the form of animals. The goddess Renenutet, revered in the form of a snake, was in charge of the fertility of the fields. The grape harvest depended on the vine god Shai. Another myth is characteristic of the developed Egyptian society, which says that people originated from the body of the creator god as his exact likeness. For them, he created heaven and earth out of chaos, air for breathing, animals, birds and fish for food.

Egyptian language belongs to the Egyptian branch of the Afroasiatic language family. The language of the ancient Egyptians is characterized by a desire to concretize abstract concepts, a clear word order in a sentence, a lack of means to convey dynamic action, and richness vocabulary. Egypt gave the world one of the earliest and most developed writing systems, combining ideographic and sound transmission of information. A feature of Egyptian writing is that vowel sounds are ignored. Among the ancient thinkers who paid attention to the Athens, Horapollo, who lived in the second half of the 5th century, advanced most of all. In his work “Hieroglyphics,” he suggested that with the help of hieroglyphs there was a transmission of words and concepts, and each sign was assigned its own meaning. This theory of Egyptian writing remained dominant until the 18th century.

The most important event in history decryption of the Egyptian writing was the discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1799, which was studied by the Frenchman Sylvester de Sacy, the Swede Marcel Åkerblad, and the Englishman Thomas Young. Subsequently he joined them Jean Francois Champollion, who managed to solve the riddle of the Egyptian letter. His deciphering method was based on a comparative analysis of the signs of the Greek, hieroglyphic and demotic writing systems, as well as the writing of the Copts and other nationalities.

Based on the research of many scientists, it was found that the basis Egyptian canon lies the principle of the Golden Ratio. The term "Golden Section" was introduced by Leonardo da Vinci - "sectio auerea". The golden section of segment AB can be geometrically obtained if from vertex D on diagonal AD a segment equal to leg DV is measured, and then from vertex A with a radius equal to the distance to the notch on the hypotenuse, measure a segment on side AB. The resulting segments AC and CB will divide the side AB in the proportion of the Golden Ratio. The ancient Egyptian canon is based on geometric model solar calendar. Based on geometric constructions, it was determined when to get married, how to build a home, where to make windows, doors, etc.

It has been established that the great pyramids of the Giza plateau were built using the proportions of the ancient Egyptian canon, but only in a more complex interpretation.

Origin and development of astronomy are associated with the practical need to create a simple agricultural calendar. Over time, several chronology systems developed and simultaneously existed in Egypt. All of them were based on observations of the movements of celestial bodies and key events in the life of Egyptian society. Another major achievement of the Egyptians was their ability to count and tell time. Special instruments and tables with calculations have been preserved, which were based on numerous observations of the celestial vault and knowledge physical properties some materials. It should also be noted the close connection of ancient Egyptian astronomy with astrology.

All famous "mathematical" Egyptian texts are generally of the same type: as a rule, the condition of the problem and the answer are given, but the method of solution is not given. In parallel with the formation of writing, the process of formation of the ancient Egyptian counting system took place, combining binary and decimal methods of transmitting numerical values.

The development and widespread dissemination of “mathematics” in Ancient Egypt is associated with the formation of a huge bureaucratic apparatus. The daily need for various calculations required employees to have simple arithmetic skills and knowledge of the system of measures of length, mass, volume and area. In addition to whole numbers, the Egyptians used fractions in their calculations.

Evidence of the high level of mathematical knowledge of the Egyptians are the pyramids and temples that have survived to this day, as well as reports of the construction of huge artificial reservoirs.

For a long time, the mathematical heritage of Ancient Egypt had a strong influence on the development of scientific theoretical thought in a number of other countries.

enjoyed a high reputation in the ancient world Egyptian medicine. Medical papyri are written in the same type as mathematical ones: practical guides for doctors and no theory. Only 10 papyri containing medical manuals have survived. They are called by the name of their owners (Edwin Smith, Heret, Chester-Beatty, Kalberg, etc.) or by the place of discovery (Kahunsky, Ramesumsky, etc.). The oldest of the listed papyri is Kahunsky, dating back to 1850 BC . According to available data, surgical operations such as amputations and craniotomy were performed in Egypt. Physiology was also known to the Egyptians: they knew about the connections of body parts with internal organs and the presence of a third system in the body - a regulatory one. In Egypt, there were complex and still unexplored processes of embalming and mummification.

Carriers magical knowledge there were Egyptian priests. Magic existed in two forms: open (for everyone) and closed (magical). The main means that the Egyptians used to perform magical actions were: magic stones, amulets, formulas, images and spells, ceremonies, “ushebti”. Among the amulets, the “heart” should be noted. The heart was considered not only the seat of life force, but also the source of good and bad thoughts and even the personification of conscience. The most famous amulet - the Scarab - is associated with the heart.

The economy of Ancient Egypt was based on crop production. Farming technology was completely dependent on the hydraulic regime, therefore the main condition for the production of agricultural crops was the artificial regulation of river water with the help of dams, canals, and dams for irrigation and drainage. This ensured high yields of cereals, vegetables, and fruits. As a result, hydraulic engineering, construction, and architecture developed. The religion of the Egyptians, their idea of ​​the afterlife and the universe had a particular influence on construction and architecture.

About the level of development techniques and technologies in Egypt can be judged by numerous texts and drawings on papyri, reliefs on the walls of tombs, sarcophagi, temples, mastabas, pyramids, etc. The economic life of Ancient Egypt seems to be very extensive and multifaceted.

To this day, there are several “technological” secrets of Egypt: the durability of paints; non-flammable papyrus with asbestos coating, embalming and of course the Egyptian pyramids. The largest concentration of pyramids is located on the left bank of the Nile in Saqqara, Giza, Dashur, Abusir. Scientists count only about 80 pyramids. Based on their shape, pyramids are classified into: stepped, classic, pyramids with broken edges and pyramids in the shape of sarcophagi. There are several versions regarding the purpose of the pyramids: a monument to the assertion of power and strength, a funeral ensemble, a ritual complex, a place for storing (preserving) valuables, etc.

Ancient Egyptian civilization arose in the Nile Delta region. Throughout the history of Ancient Egypt, thirty dynasties of rulers changed. Thirty-second year BC. e. considered the boundary of the existence of the civilization of Ancient Egypt.

The inhabitants of this advanced civilization of antiquity never celebrated their birthdays. What was the reason for this - to this day there is no one generally accepted answer...

Mountains surrounded Egypt; this predetermined the closed nature of the civilization that appeared here, which was of an agricultural nature. Agricultural labor, due to favorable climatic conditions, did not require much physical effort; the Egyptians harvested crops twice a year. engaged in the processing of clay, stone, wood and metal. Farming tools were made from baked clay. In addition, granite, alabaster, slate and bone were also used. Small vessels were sometimes carved from rock crystal.

The ancient Egyptians based their perception and measurement of time on the rhythm of the Nile flood. Each subsequent year was regarded by them as a repetition of the past and was determined not by the solar cycle, but by the time needed to harvest. The months did not have names, but were numbered. Every fourth year was a leap year, every fifth day of the decade was a day off. The priests kept track of time.

The Egyptians divided the day into 12 hours and 12 hours into night. Each hour had its own name. The first hour of the day was called “brilliant”, the sixth - “the hour of rising”, etc.

In addition, all days of the year were divided into three categories - happy, dangerous and unlucky - depending on the events that marked them at the time when the gods lived on earth. Thus, the ancient Egyptians behaved according to the days. On an unlucky day, they tried not to leave the house, especially at sunset and at night. On such a day it was impossible to swim, sail on boats, go on a journey, eat fish or anything that comes from water. Traditions played the main role in regulating behavior. There were calendars where happy and unlucky days were marked.

The Egyptian pyramids are today the last “active” wonder of the world. Other miracles disappeared into the mists of history without a trace. The Great Pyramid of Cheops was built about 3,000 years ago. Its construction took 2,300,000 huge stone blocks, the total mass of which is 7,000,000 tons.

The high standard of living and well-being in the Ancient Egyptian civilization is confirmed by the fact that they had two customs that were not typical for other civilizations of antiquity: leaving all old people and all newborn babies alive.

The main clothing of the Egyptians is the loincloth. They wore sandals quite rarely, and the main means of demonstrating their social status was the amount of jewelry (necklaces, bracelets).

The ancient Egyptians believed that everything in the world belongs to the gods, that the gods are the source of universal prosperity, that they know their thoughts and desires and can intervene in the affairs of people at any time. Meanwhile, the nature of the gods was consubstantial with the human: the gods were credited with human qualities, each had their own character, they had families.

An indisputable fact in our time is that antibiotics first began to be actively used only in the 20th century. But not everyone knows about the fact that thousands of years ago in Egypt, some of the infectious diseases were treated with moldy bread. It turns out that it was the ancient Egyptians who should be considered pioneers in the use of antibiotics for medicinal purposes.

The Egyptians believed that after death they would go to the court of the god Osiris (Usir - the king of the underworld), who would weigh their good and bad deeds on the scales. They sought to ensure that life in the afterlife was no different from life on earth. The bodies were embalmed. A wealthy person prepared an afterlife house for himself in advance, therefore every city of the living had a city of the dead - it was located in the desert next to the city.

The ancient Egyptian state had 4 centralized despotisms. The pharaoh was the personification of the state: he united administrative, judicial and military powers. The Egyptians believed that the god Ra (the sun god according to Egyptian mythology) was concerned about their well-being and sent his son, the pharaoh, to earth. Each pharaoh was regarded as the son of the god Ra. The duties of the pharaoh included performing sacred, cult rituals in temples in order for the country to be prosperous. The daily life of the pharaoh was strictly regulated, because he was the high priest of all the gods.

As you know, the French are the trendsetters in the wine business. But few people know that the first wine cellar was discovered in Egypt. In addition, the ancient Egyptians were the first to brew beer.

The civilization of Ancient Egypt already had an effective system of internal and exchange trade since predynastic times. Internal trade became especially widespread in the 2nd millennium BC. e., when the word “merchant” first appeared in the Egyptian lexicon. Silver bars gradually replaced grain as a measure of market values. In Ancient Egypt, not gold, but silver served as money, because gold was a symbol of divinity, providing the body of the pharaoh with an eternal afterlife. The main means of transport in Egypt are ships and boats, the main trade routes are rivers and canals. On land roads built along dams, pack animals, primarily donkeys, were used.

A systemic feature of the organization of ancient Egyptian society was the possession of a profession. The main position - warrior, artisan, priest, official - was inherited, but it was also possible to “take office” or be “appointed to a position.” The bulk of able-bodied Egyptians were used in agriculture, the rest were employed in crafts or the service sector.

The ancient Egyptians used pigeons to convey messages to each other.

The civilization of Ancient Egypt dates back about three thousand years. Scientists distinguish 5 periods of development of ancient Egyptian civilization: Early, Ancient, Middle, New and Late Kingdoms.

Early kingdom XXXI–XXIX centuries. BC e.

The times of struggle between Upper and Lower Egypt for hegemony. Upper Egypt was victorious, whose pharaohs founded the First Pan-Egyptian Dynasty. The ancestor of the 1st dynasty was Pharaoh Minu. Mina built the first Egyptian capital - Memphis, at the junction of the delta and valley. The patron of the Mina dynasty was the god Horus. During the reign of the Second Dynasty of the Early Kingdom, the hidden struggle between Lower and Upper Egypt continued. Pharaoh Josehemui achieved the final unification of Egypt into one strong centralized state. After him, the pharaohs of the Second Dynasty began to call themselves not only by the name of Horus (patron of Upper Egypt), but also by the name of Set (patron of Lower Egypt).

Ancient kingdom of the XXVIII–XXIII centuries. BC e.

During this period, the pharaohs achieved a great concentration of human and material resources. Agriculture and technology (copper metallurgy) reached their peak. The first civil and religious laws are created, the first canons of art are established. It was only during the Old Kingdom that the great Egyptian pyramids were built. This is evidence of the flourishing of civilization, since the construction of the pyramids required enormous resources and knowledge.

The founder of the III dynasty, Pharaoh Djoser, owned the first pyramid. It was during the era of the Old Kingdom that the concept of the deification of the pharaoh was recorded. The V Dynasty abandoned the construction of pyramids - economic decline began. Temples of the god Ra are being actively built, whose cult is becoming the main one in the state. During the VI dynasty, the economic crisis reached its limit, the country disintegrated into independent nomes, and the I transition period began (XXIII–XXI centuries BC).

Middle Kingdom XXI–XVIII centuries. BC e.

By the end of the transition period, two unifying centers emerged: in the north - Heracleopolis, in the south - Thebes. Thebes wins the struggle and their ruler Mentuhotep founded the XI pan-Egyptian dynasty. A new flowering of ancient Egyptian society began. The Egyptians modernized and complicated the irrigation system, creating the first artificial seas. Now agriculture no longer depends on the Nile floods.

At this time, Egypt actively trades with surrounding countries. Trade caravans travel across the Isthmus of Suez to the Middle East and across the Red Sea to Africa. During the Middle Kingdom, the leading cult was the cult of the god Amun, centered in Thebes. The Middle Kingdom ended with the Hyksos invasion at the end of the 18th century. BC e. Egypt again broke up into separate nomes. The Hyksos (XV–XVI dynasties) rule only in Southern Egypt. Their reign is called the II transition period.

New Kingdom of the 16th–12th centuries. BC e.

Thebes, even under the rule of the Hyksos, remained a strong independent center. The 17th dynasty ruled here, whose pharaohs led the fight to expel the Hyksos from Egypt. Pharaoh Ahmose completely defeated the Hyksos and laid the foundation for the 18th pan-Egyptian dynasty. The era of the New Kingdom is characterized by the emergence of the Egyptian Empire. A strong conquering army was created using mercenaries. The army captured Palestine and Syria in the north, and reached the third Nile cataract in the south.

During this period, Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton) tries to break the priesthood by replacing the main god of the empire, Amun, with the god Aten. This attempt to create the first monotheistic religion was not completed, since Akhenaten ruled for only 15 years. After his death, everything returned to normal. Egypt reached its greatest power under Pharaoh Ramesses II the Great (XIX Dynasty). He reigned for 66 years; his era was the most stable and is marked by massive construction projects. With the death of Ramesses II comes a slow decline and transition to the next era.

Late kingdom XI–IV centuries. BC e.

Egypt is under the rule of foreigners - the Libyan and Ethiopian dynasties, and then became a province of the Assyrian and Persian powers. In the 4th century. BC e. Egypt was conquered. This is where the history of Ancient Egyptian civilization ends and the Hellenistic era begins.

Ancient Egyptians great importance attached They viewed death as a transition to another, better life. To preserve the three souls of a person - ka, ba and ah - it was considered necessary to preserve the bodies of the dead (in the pre-dynastic era, bodies were buried in shallow pits, which made it possible for them to be preserved in hot sand and thereby avoid decay; from the middle of the 2nd millennium BC . e., in the era of the New Kingdom, they developed the embalming technique).

It was believed that after death, the deceased, with the help of an old man-carrier, crossed the River of the Dead, passed through 12 gates, and crossed the Lake of Fire. Then 42 judges read a list of sins. In the Judgment Hall of Osiris, the heart of the deceased was weighed on scales; it should not outweigh the Feather - the symbol of the goddess of truth. Anyone who passed the test became a resident of the Other World, or the Kingdom of the West. Sinners were given over to be torn to pieces by the monster.

The first will was also written in Egypt. This was done by the son of the Egyptian pharaoh Khafre, who died around 2601 BC.

There were more than 2,000 gods and goddesses in Ancient Egypt, but the cult of most of them had local significance. Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (1364–1347, reigned 1351–1334 BC) attempted to introduce one of the first religious reforms in the world. The country abolished the veneration of all former gods and closed their temples. Monotheism, the worship of the sun god Aten, was introduced. They began to build new temples, a new capital was founded, and the pharaoh himself took the name Akhenaten, which meant “Pleasing to Aten.” This model of reforming society was subsequently reproduced many times, often with the same result, because after the death of Akhenaten, the reforms came to naught, and the influence of the former priesthood increased, the position of the high priest began to be inherited.

Along with other ancient civilizations, the ancient Egyptians were among the first people in the world to invent writing using paper and ink.

Ancient Egyptian mythology is an outstanding phenomenon of world culture. It reflects the rich spiritual world of Egyptian society, a complex system of philosophical, ethical and aesthetic views, ideas about the origin of the world and man. Mythological characters, rulers - favorites of the gods - became heroes of works of literature and fine art. The achievements of Ancient Egypt were so organically absorbed by other civilizations, and the civilization itself was so completely forgotten, that the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs by Francois Champollion in 1822 actually determined the “rebirth” of Ancient Egypt.

The production of glass and earthenware is also an Egyptian innovation dating back thousands of years. In addition, builders who erect beautiful architectural structures today do not always know that Egypt is also the birthplace of such a material as cement.

Metamorphoses similar to the fate of the Ancient Egyptian civilization also occurred with other ancient civilizations that “revealed” to humanity as a result of scientific research in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Ancient Egyptian civilization is the ancestor of almost all modern household items and personal care products. It was here, thousands of years ago, that a lock and keys to it, a comb and scissors, makeup and deodorant, a wig and a toothbrush and toothpaste were first invented.

Before the dynastic period (5 thousand - 3100 BC) - the Egyptian nation consisted of 40 small states. In the second half of the 4th millennium BC. e. these states formed two kingdoms: in the north - Lower Egypt, in the south - Upper Egypt. The so-called dynastic era began in these territories. This is the era of the final decomposition of tribal relations and the emergence of the first slave states. Writing appears. This period in Egyptian history, beginning in prehistoric times and ending around 3100 BC. e., the formation of a single state and the establishment of the power of the 1st dynasty. The first pharaoh was Mina, who united Upper and Lower Egypt. The Pharaoh of the II dynasty, Khasekhem, finally united the country into a centralized state, suppressing unrest in the north. The Ancient Egyptian dynasties begin with the unification of Egypt. The country turned into a centralized eastern despotism, which ensured the creation of a nationwide system of irrigation structures.

The period of the reign of the first three dynasties of Egyptian pharaohs is associated with the unification of Egypt. This is where the countdown of the Ancient Egyptian dynasties begins. Ancient Kingdom (28-23 centuries BC) This is the time of the final formation of all cultures of Egyptian civilization. During this period, crafts such as weaving, pottery and jewelry achieved great development. Expeditions were prepared to the islands of Crete and Phenicia. Private land ownership also appears. By this time, a clear hierarchical system. At the top, which stood the pharaoh, who was considered a god (the incarnation of the god Horus, the son of the god Ra) with absolute power (legislative, executive judicial). Below the pharaoh were aristocrats, courtiers, officials and priests. Belonging to the upper class was hereditary. The lower layer consisted of communal peasants. During the reign of the pharaohs of the 4th dynasty (28-27 centuries BC) - Cheops, Snefru, Djedefre, Khafre managed to rise above the aristocracy and make it completely dependent. With the strengthening of the divine cult of the pharaoh, the cult of the afterlife appears. A lot of effort and money was spent on the construction of giant pyramids. The most famous among them are the pyramids of Cheops, Khafre and Mikerin. 23-21 centuries - Egypt is going through a period of political fragmentation. During this period, the country fell apart into regions (nomes), where the clan nobility ruled, not wanting to reckon with the will of the pharaohs. This immediately affected the country's economy, famine and unrest began. This period includes the reign of the III-IV dynasty. Middle Kingdom (21-18 centuries BC)

For 300 years, Egypt was torn apart by internecine wars and revolts of peasants and slaves. At the end of the 21st century BC. e. The country was again able to be united by the Theban rulers - the pharaohs of the XI dynasty. They were able to subjugate all of Egypt and make Thebes the capital of the country. Amenehmet I was able to limit the privileges of the rulers of the nomes. Under the pharaohs of the XII dynasty, the new government was deprived of political independence. To strengthen their authority, the pharaohs were forced to again accumulate land wealth and wage wars of conquest in Nubia, Syria and Palestine for the sake of extracting gold and other types of raw materials.

New Kingdom (16-11 centuries BC) The first world empire in history, a huge multi-tribal state created through the conquest of neighboring peoples. It included Nubia, Libya, Palestine, Syria and other areas rich in natural resources. At the end of the New Kingdom, Egypt fell into decline and became the prey of conquerors, first the Persians, then the Romans, who incorporated it into the Roman Empire in 36 BC.

Later period (1st millennium BC) the son of the chief priest became Pharaoh. Since that time, Egypt has been subject to many invasions and many wars. During the Late Kingdom, Egyptian independence was restored, but wars continued. Attempts were made to build a canal from the Nile to the Red Sea, but this was unsuccessful. Friendly relations were established with Greece. Egypt finally came under Persian rule. 2. Territorial location

Nile is the river of life. The civilization of Ancient Egypt arose in the lower reaches of the Nile River in Africa. The success of ancient Egyptian civilization was largely a result of its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River Valley. During the era of the New Kingdom, the power of the pharaohs extended over a large territory in the Eastern Mediterranean and on the Red Sea coast.

As we know, the climate in that part of Africa where the Nile flows is dry and hot. More than 90% of Egypt's land is rocky desert, the so-called Red Land. When the Nile floods, it brings silt, which makes the soil very fertile. Egypt's economy was based on productive agriculture in the fertile Nile Valley. The Nile was the connecting thread between the people who lived along its banks. That is why the Egyptians very early learned to build boats from reeds, and later ships. The presence of fertile soil and building materials contributed to the development of agriculture, construction, as well as crafts and trade, which helped enrich the state and contributed to the development of science. Imagine a state that can build buildings and dams, artificial irrigation systems, erect buildings 146.6 meters high (Pyramid of Cheops), have its own written language, use sun and water clocks. 3. Worldview values

Egypt was called "Gift of the Nile" in ancient times

Geographical position

Ancient Egypt is one of the world's oldest civilizations, which originated in Northeast Africa, in the Nile Valley. It is generally accepted that the word "Egypt" comes from the ancient Greek "Aigyptos". It probably arose from Het-ka-Ptah, a city that the Greeks later called Memphis. The Egyptians themselves called their country “Ta Kemet” - Black Land - after the color of the local soil.

Egypt occupied a profitable geographical position. The Mediterranean Sea connected it with the Western Asian coast, Cyprus, and the islands Aegean Sea and mainland Greece. The Nile was the most important shipping artery connecting Upper and Lower Egypt and the entire country with Nubia, which ancient authors called Ethiopia.

Formation of a single state

We read in more detail about the first centuries of Ancient Egypt and the formation of the state in the article “Formation of the State. The Early Kingdom of Ancient Egypt".

In the era before the formation of the state, Egypt consisted of separate regions; as a result of their unification, two kingdoms arose - Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt. After a long war, the Upper Egyptian kingdom won, and the two parts merged. The exact date of this event is unknown, but it can be assumed that around 3000 BC. e. a single state already existed in the Nile Valley.

The beginning of the chronicle Egyptian tradition is associated with the name of King Min (Greek Menes) - the founder of the 1st dynasty, probably identical with Horus Akha. According to the legend preserved by Herodotus, Ming founded the capital of the united kingdom at the junction of Upper and Lower Egypt, erecting a dam to protect the city from flooding. From here it was convenient to govern both the south and north of the country. The Greeks later named this city Memphis.

Previously kingdom

After the reign of his heir, Thutmose II, the throne was seized by Hatshepsut, who initially retained the child king, her stepson, Thutmose III, as the nominal ruler, but later openly declared herself a pharaoh. Having come to power, Thutmose III sought to eradicate any reminder of Hatshepsut, destroying her images and even her name. He made many campaigns in Syria and Palestine, and his empire began to extend from the fourth cataract of the Nile to the northern outskirts of Syria.

For the first half of the 14th century. BC e. marks the reign of Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton), whose name is associated with the most important religious reform. Under Amenhotep IV's two successors, a departure from his policies began. Semnekh-kere restored the cult of Amun; under the next pharaoh, Tutankhamun, the cult of Aten, approved by the reformer king, lost state support.

Under Ramses I (XIX Dynasty), long wars began with the Hittites for dominance in Syria. During the reign of Ramesses II, the famous battle with the Hittites took place under the walls of the Syrian city of Kadesh, in which up to 20 thousand people took part on each side. In his description of this battle, Ramesses claims that it was he who won the victory. But it is known that the Egyptians were unable to take Kadesh and the Hittites, led by King Muwatallis, pursued them during their retreat. The long war ended in the 21st year of the reign of Ramesses II with a peace treaty with the Hittite king Hattusilis III. The original treaty was written on silver tablets, but only copies in Egyptian and Hittite languages ​​survive. Despite the strength of Egyptian weapons, Ramesses II failed to restore the borders of the empire of the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty.

Under the heir of Ramesses II, his thirteenth son Merneptah, and under Ramesses III, the son of the founder of the 20th dynasty Setnakht, waves of conquerors - the “peoples of the sea” and Libyan tribes - fell on Egypt. Having with difficulty repelled the onslaught of the enemy, the country found itself on the verge of serious upheavals, which in internal political life were manifested in frequent changes of rulers, rebellions and conspiracies, in the strengthening of the positions of the new nobility (especially in Thebaid, in the south of Egypt), closely associated with priestly circles, and in in the sphere of foreign policy - in the gradual decline in Egypt's military prestige and in the loss of its foreign possessions.

The era of the New Kingdom was for Egypt a time not only of territorial expansion, but also of rapid economic development, stimulated by the influx into the country of a huge amount of raw materials, livestock, gold, all kinds of tribute and labor in the form of captives.

From the 18th dynasty, bronze tools began to be widely used. But due to the high cost of copper, stone tools are still used. A number of iron products have survived from this era. Iron was known in Egypt before. But even at the end of the 18th dynasty it continued to be considered almost a treasure. And only in the VII-VI centuries. BC. tools in Egypt began to be widely made from iron, which was extremely important for economic progress.

During the era of the New Kingdom, improved plows, foot bellows in metallurgy, and a vertical loom began to be widely used. Horse breeding, previously unknown to the Egyptians, was developing to serve the Egyptian army with its war chariots. From the reign of Amenhotep IV, the first image of a water-lifting structure—shaduf—came down to us. His invention was of great importance for the development of horticulture and gardening in high fields. Attempts are being made to grow new varieties of trees exported from Asia (pomegranate, olive, peach, apple, almond, cherry, etc.) or from Punt (myrrh tree). Glass production is developing intensively. The art of mummification reaches unsurpassed perfection. Domestic trade is becoming increasingly important. International trade, for the development of which in Egypt during the era of conquest there was no incentive, because it received everything it needed for itself in the form of booty and tribute, acquires a certain significance only in the second half of the New Kingdom.

During the New Kingdom, the widespread use of slave labor was noted, primarily in the royal and temple households (although slaves also served private estates). Thus, during his 30-year reign, Ramses III donated to the temples over 100 thousand captives from Syria, Palestine and more than 1 million sections (Greek “arur”; 1 aur - 0.28 hectares) of arable land. But the main producer of material goods was still the working population of Egypt, entangled in all kinds of duties.

By the beginning of the 11th century. BC. Two kingdoms were formed in Egypt: Lower Egyptian with its center in Tanis, in the northeast of the Delta, and Upper Egyptian with its capital in Thebes. By this time, Syria, Phenicia and Palestine had already left Egyptian influence, and the northern half of Egypt was flooded with Libyan military settlers led by leaders allied with the local Egyptian authorities. One of the Libyan military leaders, Shoshenq I (950-920 BC), founded the XXII Dynasty. But his power, like that of his successors, was not strong, and under the Libyan pharaohs (IX-VIII centuries BC) Lower Egypt fell into a number of separate regions.

At the end of the 8th century. BC. The Nubian king Piankhi captured a significant part of Upper Egypt, including Thebes. The local influential priesthood supported the conquerors, hoping with their help to regain their dominant position. But the ruler of Sais in Lower Egypt, Tefnakht, who relied on the Libyans, managed to lead the fight against the invasion. Memphis also opposed the Nubians.

However, in three battles they defeated Tefnakht’s army and, moving north, reached Memphis, taking the city by storm. Tefnakht was forced to surrender to the mercy of the victors. The next Nubian king to rule Egypt was Shabaka. According to the legend preserved by Manetho, he captured the Lower Egyptian pharaoh Bokhoris and burned him alive. In 671 BC. The Assyrian king Esarhaddon defeated the army of the Nubian pharaoh Taharqa and captured Memphis.

The liberation of Egypt and its unification was carried out by the founder of the XXVI (Sais) dynasty, Psammetichus I. The next pharaoh, Necho II, sought to establish his dominance in Syria. In 608 BC. The Jewish king Josiah blocked the Egyptian army's road at Megiddo (a city in northern Palestine), but was mortally wounded. After this, Judea began to pay a large tribute in gold and silver to the Egyptian king. Egyptian rule over Syria and Palestine lasted three years, and in 605 BC. The Egyptian army was pushed back to its border by the Babylonians. Under Apria (589-570 BC), one of the successors of Psammetichus I, Egypt supported Judea in the fight against Babylonia. Apries defeated the fleet of Sidon, one of the largest Phoenician cities. In 586 BC. The Egyptian army appeared under the walls of Jerusalem, but was soon defeated by the Babylonians.

By that time, to the west of Egypt, on the Libyan shore of the Mediterranean Sea, the Hellenes had created their own state - Cyrene. Apries decided to subjugate him and sent significant military forces against him, but they were defeated by the Greeks. A rebellion broke out in the Egyptian army against Aprus, and Amasis (570-526 BC) was elevated to the throne.

Persian rule

In 525 BC. In the battle of Pelusium, the Persian army led by King Cambyses defeated the Egyptians. Then Cambyses was proclaimed king of Egypt (XXVII dynasty). To give the seizure of Egypt a legal character, legends were created about the matrimonial ties of the Persian kings with the Egyptian princesses and about the birth of Cambyses from the marriage of his father Cyrus with Nitetis, the daughter of Pharaoh Apria.

Capture of Egypt by Alexander the Great

Egypt achieved independence from the Persian overlords several times (Dynasties XXVIII-XXX) until it was conquered in 332 BC. Alexander the Great, in whom the Egyptians initially saw a liberator from Persian oppression. The time of Pharaonic Egypt is up. The Hellenistic era began. http://civilka.ru/egypet/egipet.html