What is the name of the central body of the solar system. solar system

solar system is one of 200 billion star systems located in the Milky Way galaxy. It is located approximately in the middle between the center of the galaxy and its edge.
The solar system is a certain accumulation of celestial bodies that are connected by gravitational forces with a star (the Sun). It includes: the central body - the Sun, 8 large planets with their satellites, several thousand small planets or asteroids, several hundred observed comets and an infinite number of meteoric bodies.

Large planets are divided into 2 main groups:
- terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars);
- planets of the Jupiter group or giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune).
Pluto has no place in this classification. In 2006, it was found that Pluto, due to its small size and great distance from the Sun, has a low gravitational field and its orbit is not similar to the orbits of planets adjacent to it, closer to the Sun. In addition, the elongated ellipsoidal orbit of Pluto (for the rest of the planets it is almost circular) intersects with the orbit of the eighth planet of the solar system - Neptune. That is why, since recent times, it was decided to deprive Pluto of the status of a "planet".

AT solar system, in addition to planets, there are two areas filled with small bodies (dwarf planets, asteroids, comets, meteorites). The first area is Asteroid Belt, which is between Mars and Jupiter. In composition, it is similar to the terrestrial planets, as it consists of silicates and metals. Beyond Neptune is a second region called Kuiper belt. It has many objects (mostly dwarf planets) consisting of frozen water, ammonia and methane, the largest of which is Pluto.

The Koipner belt begins just after the orbit of Neptune.

Its outer ring ends at a distance

8.25 billion km from the Sun. This is a huge ring around the whole

The solar system is an infinite

the amount of volatile substances from ice floes of methane, ammonia and water.

The Asteroid Belt is located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

The outer boundary is located 345 million km from the Sun.

Contains tens of thousands, possibly millions of objects more than one

kilometers in diameter. The largest of them are dwarf planets

(diameter from 300 to 900 km).

All planets and most other objects revolve around the Sun in the same direction as the Sun's rotation (counterclockwise as viewed from the north pole of the Sun). Mercury has the highest angular velocity - it manages to make a complete revolution around the Sun in just 88 Earth days. And for the most distant planet - Neptune - the period of revolution is 165 Earth years. Most of the planets rotate around their axis in the same direction as they revolve around the sun. The exceptions are Venus and Uranus, and Uranus rotates almost "lying on its side" (axis tilt is about 90 °).

It was previously assumed that boundary of the solar system ends just after Pluto's orbit. However, in 1992, new celestial bodies were discovered, which undoubtedly belong to our system, since they are directly under the gravitational influence of the Sun.

Each celestial object is characterized by such concepts as a year and a day. Year- this is the time for which the body turns around the Sun at an angle of 360 degrees, i.e. makes a complete circle. BUT day is the period of rotation of the body around its own axis. The closest planet from the Sun, Mercury, revolves around the Sun in 88 Earth days, and around its axis - in 59 days. This means that even less than two days pass on the planet in one year (for example, on Earth, one year includes 365 days, i.e. that is how many times the Earth turns around its axis in one revolution around the Sun). While on the most distant, from the Sun, dwarf planet Pluto, a day is 153.12 hours (6.38 Earth days). And the period of revolution around the Sun is 247.7 Earth years. That is, only our great-great-great-great-grandchildren will catch the moment when Pluto finally goes all the way in its orbit.

galactic year. In addition to circular motion in orbit, the solar system performs vertical oscillations relative to the galactic plane, crossing it every 30-35 million years and ending up either in the northern or southern galactic hemisphere.
Disturbing factor for the planets solar system is their gravitational influence on each other. It slightly changes the orbit compared to that in which each planet would move under the action of the Sun alone. The question is whether these perturbations can accumulate up to the fall of the planet on the Sun or its removal beyond solar system, or they are periodic and the orbital parameters will only fluctuate around some average values. The results of theoretical and research work carried out by astronomers over the past 200 years speak in favor of the second assumption. This is also evidenced by the data of geology, paleontology and other Earth sciences: for 4.5 billion years, the distance of our planet from the Sun has practically not changed. And in the future, neither falling on the Sun, nor leaving solar system, as well as the Earth, and other planets are not threatened.

The solar system is a star-planet system. There are approximately 200 billion stars in our Galaxy, among which, according to experts, some stars have planets. The solar system includes the central body, the Sun, and nine planets with their satellites (more than 60 satellites are known). The diameter of the solar system is more than 11.7 billion km.

At the beginning of the XXI century. an object was discovered in the solar system, which astronomers called Sedna (the name of the Eskimo goddess of the ocean-

on the). Sedna has a diameter of 2000 km. One revolution around the sun is

10,500 earth years.

Some astronomers call this object a planet in the solar system. Other astronomers call planets only space objects that have a central core with a relatively high temperature. For example, temperature

in the center of Jupiter, according to calculations, reaches 20,000 K. Since at present

Sedna is located at a distance of about 13 billion km from the center of the solar system,

then information about this object is rather scarce. At the farthest point of the orbit, the distance from Sedna to the Sun reaches a huge value - 130 billion km.

Our star system includes two belts of minor planets (asteroids). The first is located between Mars and Jupiter (contains more than 1 million asteroids), the second is beyond the orbit of the planet Neptune. Some asteroids are over 1000 km in diameter. The outer limits of the solar system are surrounded by the so-called Oort cloud, named after the Dutch astronomer who hypothesized the existence of this cloud in the last century. As astronomers believe, the edge of this cloud closest to the solar system consists of ice floes of water and methane (comet nuclei), which, like the smallest planets, revolve around the Sun under the influence of its gravitational force at a distance of over 12 billion km. The number of such miniature planets is in the billions.

In the literature, there is often a hypothesis about the star-satellite of the Sun Nemesis. (Nemesis in Greek mythology is a goddess punishing the violation of morality and laws). Some astronomers claim that Nemesis is at a distance of 25 trillion km from the Sun at the most distant point of its orbit around the Sun and 5 trillion km at the closest point of its orbit to the Sun. These astronomers believe that the passage of Nemesis through the Oort cloud causes catastrophes.

in the solar system, since celestial bodies from this cloud enter the solar system. Since ancient times, astronomers have been interested in the remains of bodies of extraterrestrial origin, meteorites. Every day, according to researchers, about 500 extraterrestrial bodies fall to Earth. In 1947, a meteorite called the Sikhote-Alin (southeastern part of Primorsky Krai) fell, weighing 70 tons, with the formation of 100 craters at the site of impact and many fragments that were scattered over an area of ​​3 km2. All of its pieces have been collected. More than 50% falling

meteorites - stone meteorites, 4% - iron and 5% - iron-stone.

Among the stone ones, chondrites are distinguished (from the corresponding Greek word - ball, grain) and achondrites. Interest in meteorites is associated with the study of the origin of the solar system and the origin of life on Earth.

Our solar system makes a complete revolution around the center of the Galaxy at a speed of 240 km / s in 230 million years. It is called galactic year. In addition, the solar system moves along with all the objects in our galaxy.

at a speed of approximately 600 km/s around some common gravitational center of the cluster of galaxies. This means that the speed of the Earth relative to the center of our galaxy is several times greater than its speed relative to the Sun. In addition, the sun rotates on its axis.

at a speed of 2 km/s. According to its chemical composition, the Sun consists of hydrogen (90%), helium (7%) and heavy chemical elements (2-3%). Here are the approximate numbers. The mass of a helium atom is almost 4 times that of a hydrogen atom.

The sun is a spectral class star g, located on the main sequence of stars of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. Mass of the Sun (2

1030 kg) is almost 98.97% of the entire mass of the solar system, all other formations in this system (planets, etc.) account for only

2% of the total mass of the solar system. In the total mass of all planets, the main share is the mass of the two giant planets, Jupiter and Saturn, about 412.45 Earth masses, the rest account for only 34 Earth masses. Mass of the Earth

6 1024kg, 98% momentum in the solar system

belongs to the planets, not to the sun. The Sun is a natural thermonuclear plasma reactor created by nature, having the shape of a ball with an average density of 1.41 kg/m3. This means that the average density on the Sun is slightly more than the density of ordinary water on our Earth. Luminosity of the Sun ( L) is approximately 3.86 1033 erg/s. The radius of the Sun is approximately 700 thousand km. Thus, two radii of the Sun (diameter) are 109 times greater than the earth's. Acceleration of free fall on the Sun - 274 m/s2, on the Earth - 9.8 m/s2. This means that the second cosmic velocity to overcome the gravitational force of the Sun is 700 km/s, for the Earth - 11.2 km/s.

Plasma- this is a physical state when the nuclei of atoms separately coexist with electrons. In a layered gas-plasma

formation under the influence of gravitational force, significant

deviations from the average values ​​of temperature, pressure, etc. in each layer

Thermonuclear reactions take place inside the Sun in a spherical region with a radius of 230,000 km. At the center of this region, the temperature is about 20 million K. It decreases towards the boundaries of this zone to 10 million K. The next spherical region with a length

280 thousand km has a temperature of 5 million K. In this region, thermonuclear reactions do not occur, since the threshold temperature for them is 10 million K. This region is called the region of transfer of radiant energy coming from within the previous region.

This area is followed by the area convection(lat. convection- import,

transfer). In the convection region, the temperature reaches 2 million K.

Convection- is the physical process of energy transfer in the form of heat by a certain medium. Physical and Chemical properties The convective medium can be different: liquid, gas, etc. The properties of this medium determine the rate of the process of energy transfer in the form of heat to the next region of the Sun. A convective region or zone on the Sun has an extent of approximately

150-200 thousand km.

The speed of movement in a convective medium is comparable to the speed of sound (300

m/s). The magnitude of this velocity plays an important role in the removal of heat from the bowels of the Sun.

to its subsequent areas (zones) and into space.

The Sun does not explode due to the fact that the rate of burning of nuclear fuel inside the Sun is noticeably less than the rate of heat removal in the convective zone, even with very sharp releases of energy-mass. The convective zone, due to its physical properties, is ahead of the possibility of an explosion: the convective zone expands several minutes before a possible explosion and thereby transfers excess energy-mass to the next layer, the region of the Sun. In the core to the convective zones of the Sun, the mass density is achieved by a large number of light elements (hydrogen and helium). In the convective zone, the process of recombination (formation) of atoms occurs, thereby increasing the molecular weight of the gas in the convective zone. Recombination(lat. recombinare- connect) comes from the cooling substance of the plasma, which provides thermonuclear reactions inside the Sun. The pressure at the center of the Sun is 100 g/cm3.

On the surface of the Sun, the temperature reaches approximately 6000 K. Thus

Thus, the temperature from the convective zone drops to 1 million K and reaches 6000 K

at the full radius of the sun.

Light is electromagnetic waves of different lengths. The region of the sun where light is produced is called photosphere(Greek photos - light). The region above the photosphere is called the chromosphere (from Greek - color). The photosphere occupies

200-300 km (0.001 solar radius). The density of the photosphere is 10-9-10-6 g/cm3, the temperature of the photosphere decreases from its lower layer upwards to 4.5 thousand K. Sunspots and torches appear in the photosphere. A decrease in temperature in the photosphere, i.e., in the lower layer of the Sun's atmosphere, is a fairly typical phenomenon. The next layer is the chromosphere, its length is 7-8 thousand km. AT

In this layer, the temperature begins to rise to 300 thousand K. The next atmospheric

layer - the solar corona - in it the temperature already reaches 1.5-2 million K. The solar corona extends over several tens of solar radii and then dissipates in interplanetary space. The effect of temperature increase in the solar corona of the Sun is associated with such a phenomenon as

"sunny wind". It is the gas that forms the solar corona and consists mainly of protons and electrons, the speed of which increases according to one point of view, the so-called waves of light activity from the convection zone, which heat up the corona. Every second, the Sun loses 1/100 of its mass, i.e., approximately 4 million τ per second. The "parting" of the Sun with its energy-mass manifests itself in the form of heat, electromagnetic radiation, solar wind. The farther from the Sun, the lower the second cosmic velocity required for the exit of particles that form the "solar wind" from the gravitational field of the Sun. At a distance of the Earth's orbit (150 million km), the velocity of solar wind particles reaches 400 m/s. Among the many problems in the study of the Sun, an important place is occupied by the problem of solar activity, which is associated with a number of such phenomena as sunspots, the activity of the solar magnetic field, and solar radiation. Sunspots form in the photosphere. The average annual number of sunspots is measured over an 11-year period. In their length, they can reach up to 200 thousand km in diameter. The temperature of sunspots is lower than the temperature of the photosphere in which they are formed by 1-2 thousand K, i.e. 4500 K and lower. That's why they look dark. Appearance

Sunspots are associated with changes in the Sun's magnetic field. AT

On sunspots, the magnetic field strength is much higher than in other areas of the photosphere.

Two points of view in explaining the magnetic field of the Sun:

1. The magnetic field of the Sun arose during the formation of the Sun. Since the magnetic field streamlines the process of ejection of the energy-mass of the Sun in environment, then according to this position, the 11-year cycle of the appearance of spots is not a regularity. In 1890, the director of the Greenwich Observatory (founded in 1675 on the outskirts of London) E. Mauder noted that with

1645 to 1715 there is no mention of 11-year cycles. Greenwich meridian -

this is the zero meridian, from which the longitudes on the Earth are counted.

2. The second point of view presents the Sun as a kind of dynamo, in which electrically charged particles entering the plasma create a powerful magnetic field that increases sharply after 11-year cycles. There is a hypothesis

about the special cosmic conditions in which the sun and the solar system are located. It is about the so-called corotation circle (English) corotation- joint rotation). In a corotation circle at a certain radius, according to some studies, there is a synchronous rotation of the spiral arms and the Galaxy itself, which creates special physical conditions for the movement of the structures included in this circle, where the solar system is located.

In modern science, a point of view is developing about the close connection of processes,

occurring on the Sun, with human life on Earth. Our compatriot A.

L. Chizhevsky (1897-1964) is one of the founders of heliobiology, which studies the influence of solar energy on the development of living organisms and humans. For example, researchers drew attention to the temporal coincidence of major events in a person's social life with periods of outbursts of solar activity. In the last century, the solar activity peaked at

1905-1907, 1917, 1928, 1938, 1947, 1968, 1979 and 1990-1991

Origin of the solar system. The origin of the solar system from the gas and dust cloud of the interstellar medium (ISM) is the most recognized concept. The opinion is expressed that the mass of initial for education

The solar system cloud was equal to 10 solar masses. In this cloud

its chemical composition was decisive (about 70% was hydrogen, about 30%

Helium and 1-2% - heavy chemical elements). Approx.

about 5 billion years ago, a dense cluster formed from this cloud,

named protosolar disk. It is believed that a supernova explosion in our Galaxy gave this cloud a dynamic impulse of rotation and fragmentation: protostar and protoplanetary disk. According to this concept, the process of education protosun and the protoplanetary disk occurred quickly, in 1 million years, which led to the concentration of all energy - the mass of the future star system in its central body, and the angular momentum - in the protoplanetary disk, in future planets. It is believed that the evolution of the protoplanetary disk took place over 1 million years. There was an adhesion of particles in the central plane of this disk, which subsequently led to the formation of clusters of particles, at first small, then larger bodies, which geologists call planet earths. From them, it is believed that future planets were formed. This concept is based on the results of computer models. There are other concepts as well. For example, one of them says that it took 100 million years for the birth of the Sun-star, when a thermonuclear fusion reaction occurred in the proto-Sun. According to this concept, the planets of the solar system, in particular the terrestrial group, arose over the same 100 million years, from the mass left after the formation of the Sun. Part of this mass was retained by the Sun, the other part was dissolved in interstellar space.

In January 2004 there was a message in foreign publications about the discovery in the constellation Scorpio stars, in size, luminosity and mass similar to the Sun. Astronomers are currently interested in the question: does this star have planets?

There are several mysteries in the study of the solar system.

1. Harmony in the movement of the planets. All planets in the solar system revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits. The movement of all the planets of the solar system occurs in the same plane, the center of which is located in the central part of the equatorial plane of the Sun. The plane formed by the orbits of the planets is called the plane of the ecliptic.

2. All planets and the Sun rotate around their own axis. The axes of rotation of the Sun and the planets, with the exception of the planet Uranus, are directed, roughly speaking, perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic. The axis of Uranus is directed to the plane of the ecliptic almost parallel, i.e., it rotates lying on its side. Another feature of it is that it rotates around its axis in a different direction, like

and Venus, unlike the Sun and other planets. All other planets and

The sun rotates against the direction of the clock. Uranus has 15

satellites.

3. Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter there is a belt of minor planets. This is the so-called asteroid belt. Small planets have a diameter of 1 to 1000 km. Their total mass is less than 1/700 of the mass of the Earth.

4. All planets are divided into two groups (terrestrial and extraterrestrial). First- These are planets with a high density, in their chemical composition the main place is occupied by heavy chemical elements. They are small in size and slowly rotate around their axis. This group includes Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. There are currently suggestions that Venus is the past of the Earth, and Mars is its future.

Co. second group include: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. They consist of light chemical elements, rotate rapidly around their axis, slowly revolve around the Sun and receive less radiant energy from the Sun. Below (in the table) data are given on the average surface temperature of the planets on the Celsius scale, the length of the day and night, the length of the year, the diameter of the planets of the solar system and the mass of the planet in relation to mass

Earth (taken as 1).

The distance between the orbits of the planets approximately doubles when passing

from each of them to the next. This was noted back in 1772 by astronomers

I. Titius and I. Bode, hence the name "Rule of Titius - Bode", observed in the position of the planets. If we take the distance of the Earth from the Sun (150 million km) as one astronomical unit, then we get the following arrangement of the planets from the Sun according to this rule:

Mercury - 0.4 a. e. Venus - 0.7 a. e. Earth - 1 a. e. Mars - 1.6 a. e. Asteroids - 2.8 a. e. Jupiter - 5.2 a. e. Saturn - 10.0 a. e. Uranium - 19.6 a. e. Neptune - 38.8 a. e. Pluto - 77.2 a. e.

Table. Data about the planets of the solar system

When considering the true distances of the planets to the Sun, it turns out that

Pluto is closer to the Sun than Neptune at some periods, and,

therefore, it changes its serial number according to the Titius-Bode rule.

Mystery of the planet Venus. In ancient astronomical sources dating back to

3.5 thousand years (Chinese, Babylonian, Indian) there is no mention of Venus. American scientist I. Velikovsky in the book "Colliding Worlds", which appeared in the 50s. XX century., He hypothesized that the planet Venus took its place only recently, during the formation of ancient civilizations. Approximately once every 52 years, Venus comes close to Earth, at a distance of 39 million km. During the period of great confrontation, every 175 years, when all the planets line up one after another in the same direction, Mars approaches the Earth at a distance of 55 million km.

Astronomers use sidereal time to observe the position of stars and other objects in the sky as they appear in the night sky into one

Same sidereal time. solar time- time measured

relative to the sun. When the Earth de. barks a full turn around its axis

relative to the Sun, one day passes. If the revolution of the Earth is considered relative to the stars, then during this revolution the Earth will move in its orbit by 1/365 of the path around the Sun, i.e. by 3 min 56 s. This time is called sidereal (lat. siederis- star).

1. The development of modern astronomy is constantly expanding knowledge about the structure and objects of the Universe available for research. This explains the difference in the data on the number of stars, galaxies, and other objects that are given in the literature.

2. Several dozen planets have been discovered in our Galaxy and outside it.

3. The discovery of Sedna as the 10th planet of the solar system significantly changes our understanding of the size of the solar system and its interaction with

other objects in our galaxy.

4. In general, it should be said that astronomy only from the second half of the last century began to study the most distant objects of the Universe on the basis of more modern means.

observation and research.

5. Modern astronomy is interested in explaining the observed effect of movement (drift) of significant masses of matter at a high speed relative to

relic radiation. This is the so-called Great

wall. This is a giant cluster of galaxies, located at a distance of 500 million light years from our Galaxy. A fairly popular presentation of approaches to explaining this effect was published in the articles of the journal V Mir nauki1. 6. Unfortunately, the military interests of a number of countries are again manifesting themselves in space exploration.

For example, the US space program.

QUESTIONS FOR SELF-TEST AND SEMINARS

1. Forms of galaxies.

2. On what factors does the fate of a star depend?

3. Concepts of the formation of the solar system.

4. Supernovae and their role in the formation of the chemical composition of the interstellar medium.

5. The difference between a planet and a star.

Universe (space)- this is the whole world around us, boundless in time and space and infinitely diverse in the forms that eternally moving matter takes. The boundlessness of the Universe can be partly imagined on a clear night with billions of different sizes of luminous flickering points in the sky, representing distant worlds. Rays of light at a speed of 300,000 km / s from the most distant parts of the universe reach the Earth in about 10 billion years.

According to scientists, the Universe was formed as a result of the "Big Bang" 17 billion years ago.

It consists of clusters of stars, planets, cosmic dust and other cosmic bodies. These bodies form systems: planets with satellites (for example, the solar system), galaxies, metagalaxies (clusters of galaxies).

Galaxy(Late Greek galaktikos- milky, milky, from Greek gala- milk) is an extensive star system that consists of many stars, star clusters and associations, gas and dust nebulae, as well as individual atoms and particles scattered in interstellar space.

There are many galaxies in the universe of various sizes and shapes.

All stars visible from Earth are part of the Milky Way galaxy. It got its name due to the fact that most of the stars can be seen on a clear night in the form of the Milky Way - a whitish blurry band.

In total, the Milky Way Galaxy contains about 100 billion stars.

Our galaxy is in constant rotation. Its speed in the universe is 1.5 million km/h. If you look at our galaxy from its north pole, then the rotation occurs clockwise. The sun and the stars closest to it make a complete revolution around the center of the galaxy in 200 million years. This period is considered galactic year.

Similar in size and shape to the Milky Way galaxy is the Andromeda Galaxy, or the Andromeda Nebula, which is located at a distance of about 2 million light years from our galaxy. Light year- the distance traveled by light in a year, approximately equal to 10 13 km (the speed of light is 300,000 km / s).

To illustrate the study of the movement and location of stars, planets and other celestial bodies, the concept of the celestial sphere is used.

Rice. 1. The main lines of the celestial sphere

Celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere of arbitrarily large radius, in the center of which is the observer. Stars, the Sun, the Moon, planets are projected onto the celestial sphere.

The most important lines on the celestial sphere are: a plumb line, zenith, nadir, celestial equator, ecliptic, celestial meridian, etc. (Fig. 1).

plumb line- a straight line passing through the center of the celestial sphere and coinciding with the direction of the plumb line at the point of observation. For an observer on the surface of the Earth, a plumb line passes through the center of the Earth and the point of observation.

The plumb line intersects with the surface of the celestial sphere at two points - zenith, over the observer's head, and nadire - diametrically opposite point.

The great circle of the celestial sphere, the plane of which is perpendicular to the plumb line, is called mathematical horizon. It divides the surface of the celestial sphere into two halves: visible to the observer, with the apex at the zenith, and invisible, with the apex at the nadir.

The diameter around which the celestial sphere rotates is axis of the world. It intersects with the surface of the celestial sphere at two points - north pole of the world and south pole of the world. The North Pole is the one from which the rotation of the celestial sphere occurs clockwise, if you look at the sphere from the outside.

The great circle of the celestial sphere, whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of the world, is called celestial equator. It divides the surface of the celestial sphere into two hemispheres: northern, with a peak at the north celestial pole, and south, with a peak at the south celestial pole.

The great circle of the celestial sphere, the plane of which passes through the plumb line and the axis of the world, is the celestial meridian. It divides the surface of the celestial sphere into two hemispheres - eastern and western.

The line of intersection of the plane of the celestial meridian and the plane of the mathematical horizon - noon line.

Ecliptic(from Greek. ekieipsis- eclipse) - a large circle of the celestial sphere, along which the visible occurs annual movement Sun, more precisely - its center.

The plane of the ecliptic is inclined to the plane of the celestial equator at an angle of 23°26"21".

To make it easier to remember the location of the stars in the sky, people in antiquity came up with the idea of ​​combining the brightest of them into constellations.

Currently, 88 constellations are known that bear the names of mythical characters (Hercules, Pegasus, etc.), zodiac signs (Taurus, Pisces, Cancer, etc.), objects (Libra, Lyra, etc.) (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Summer-autumn constellations

Origin of galaxies. The solar system and its individual planets still remains an unsolved mystery of nature. There are several hypotheses. It is currently believed that our galaxy formed from a gas cloud composed of hydrogen. At the initial stage of the evolution of the galaxy, the first stars formed from the interstellar gas-dust medium, and 4.6 billion years ago, the solar system.

Composition of the solar system

The set of celestial bodies moving around the Sun as a central body forms solar system. It is located almost on the outskirts of the Milky Way galaxy. The solar system is involved in rotation around the center of the galaxy. The speed of its movement is about 220 km / s. This movement occurs in the direction of the constellation Cygnus.

The composition of the solar system can be represented in the form of a simplified diagram shown in fig. 3.

Over 99.9% of the mass of the matter of the solar system falls on the Sun and only 0.1% - on all its other elements.

Rice. 3. Composition of the solar systems

Sun

Sun is a star, a giant hot ball. Its diameter is 109 times the diameter of the Earth, its mass is 330,000 times the mass of the Earth, but the average density is low - only 1.4 times the density of water. The sun is located at a distance of about 26,000 light years from the center of our galaxy and revolves around it, making one revolution in about 225-250 million years. The orbital speed of the Sun is 217 km/s, so it travels one light year in 1400 Earth years.

Rice. 4. The chemical composition of the Sun

The pressure on the Sun is 200 billion times higher than at the surface of the Earth. The density of solar matter and pressure rapidly increase in depth; the increase in pressure is explained by the weight of all overlying layers. The temperature on the surface of the Sun is 6000 K, and inside it is 13,500,000 K. The characteristic lifetime of a star like the Sun is 10 billion years.

Table 1. General information about the Sun

The chemical composition of the Sun is about the same as that of most other stars: about 75% is hydrogen, 25% is helium, and less than 1% is all other chemical elements (carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.) (Fig. 4 ).

The central part of the Sun with a radius of approximately 150,000 km is called solar core. This is a nuclear reaction zone. The density of matter here is about 150 times higher than the density of water. The temperature exceeds 10 million K (on the Kelvin scale, in terms of degrees Celsius 1 ° C \u003d K - 273.1) (Fig. 5).

Above the core, at distances of about 0.2-0.7 of the radius of the Sun from its center, there is radiant energy transfer zone. Energy transfer here is carried out by absorption and emission of photons by individual layers of particles (see Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. Structure of the Sun

Photon(from Greek. phos- light), an elementary particle that can exist only by moving at the speed of light.

Closer to the surface of the Sun, vortex mixing of the plasma occurs, and the energy transfer to the surface occurs

predominantly by the movements of the substance itself. This type of energy transfer is called convection and the layer of the Sun, where it occurs, - convective zone. The thickness of this layer is approximately 200,000 km.

Above the convective zone is the solar atmosphere, which is constantly fluctuating. Both vertical and horizontal waves with lengths of several thousand kilometers propagate here. The oscillations occur with a period of about five minutes.

The inner layer of the sun's atmosphere is called photosphere. It consists of light bubbles. it granules. Their dimensions are small - 1000-2000 km, and the distance between them is 300-600 km. About a million granules can be simultaneously observed on the Sun, each of which exists for several minutes. The granules are surrounded by dark spaces. If the substance rises in the granules, then around them it falls. The granules create a general background against which one can observe such large-scale formations as torches, sunspots, prominences, etc.

sunspots- dark areas on the Sun, the temperature of which is lowered compared to the surrounding space.

solar torches called the bright fields surrounding sunspots.

prominences(from lat. protubero- I swell) - dense condensations of relatively cold (compared to the ambient temperature) matter that rise and are held above the surface of the Sun by a magnetic field. The origin of the magnetic field of the Sun can be caused by the fact that different layers of the Sun rotate at different speeds: the inner parts rotate faster; the core rotates especially fast.

Prominences, sunspots, and flares are not the only examples of solar activity. It also includes magnetic storms and explosions, which are called flashes.

Above the photosphere is chromosphere is the outer shell of the sun. The origin of the name of this part of the solar atmosphere is associated with its reddish color. The thickness of the chromosphere is 10-15 thousand km, and the density of matter is hundreds of thousands of times less than in the photosphere. The temperature in the chromosphere is growing rapidly, reaching tens of thousands of degrees in its upper layers. At the edge of the chromosphere are observed spicules, which are elongated columns of compacted luminous gas. The temperature of these jets is higher than the temperature of the photosphere. Spicules first rise from the lower chromosphere by 5000-10000 km, and then fall back, where they fade. All this happens at a speed of about 20,000 m/s. Spikula lives 5-10 minutes. The number of spicules existing on the Sun at the same time is about a million (Fig. 6).

Rice. 6. The structure of the outer layers of the Sun

The chromosphere surrounds solar corona is the outer layer of the sun's atmosphere.

The total amount of energy radiated by the Sun is 3.86. 1026 W, and only one two billionth of this energy is received by the Earth.

Solar radiation includes corpuscular and electromagnetic radiation.Corpuscular fundamental radiation- this is a plasma stream, which consists of protons and neutrons, or in other words - sunny wind, which reaches near-Earth space and flows around the entire Earth's magnetosphere. electromagnetic radiation is the radiant energy of the sun. It reaches the earth's surface in the form of direct and scattered radiation and provides a thermal regime on our planet.

In the middle of the XIX century. Swiss astronomer Rudolf Wolf(1816-1893) (Fig. 7) calculated a quantitative indicator of solar activity, known throughout the world as the Wolf number. Having processed the data on observations of sunspots accumulated by the middle of the last century, Wolf was able to establish the average 1-year cycle of solar activity. In fact, the time intervals between years of maximum or minimum Wolf numbers range from 7 to 17 years. Simultaneously with the 11-year cycle, a secular, more precisely 80-90-year cycle of solar activity takes place. Inconsistently superimposed on each other, they make noticeable changes in the processes taking place in the geographic envelope of the Earth.

A. L. Chizhevsky (1897-1964) (Fig. 8) pointed out the close connection of many terrestrial phenomena with solar activity back in 1936, who wrote that the vast majority of physical and chemical processes on Earth are the result of the influence of cosmic forces. He was also one of the founders of such a science as heliobiology(from Greek. helios- the sun), studying the influence of the Sun on the living substance of the geographic shell of the Earth.

Depending on solar activity, such physical phenomena occur on Earth, such as: magnetic storms, the frequency of auroras, the amount of ultraviolet radiation, the intensity of thunderstorm activity, air temperature, atmospheric pressure, precipitation, the level of lakes, rivers, groundwater, salinity and efficiency of the seas and others

The life of plants and animals is associated with the periodic activity of the Sun (there is a correlation between the solar cycle and the period of the growing season in plants, the reproduction and migration of birds, rodents, etc.), as well as humans (diseases).

At present, the relationship between solar and terrestrial processes continues to be studied with the help of artificial Earth satellites.

terrestrial planets

In addition to the Sun, planets are distinguished in the Solar System (Fig. 9).

By size, geographical indicators and chemical composition, the planets are divided into two groups: terrestrial planets and giant planets. The terrestrial planets include, and. They will be discussed in this subsection.

Rice. 9. Planets of the solar system

Earth is the third planet from the Sun. A separate section will be devoted to it.

Let's summarize. The density of the matter of the planet depends on the location of the planet in the solar system, and, taking into account its size, the mass. How
The closer the planet is to the Sun, the higher its average density of matter. For example, for Mercury it is 5.42 g/cm2, Venus - 5.25, Earth - 5.25, Mars - 3.97 g/cm 3 .

The general characteristics of the terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) are primarily: 1) relatively small sizes; 2) high temperatures on the surface; and 3) high density of planet matter. These planets rotate relatively slowly on their axis and have few or no satellites. In the structure of the planets of the terrestrial group, four main shells are distinguished: 1) a dense core; 2) the mantle covering it; 3) bark; 4) light gas-water shell (excluding Mercury). Traces of tectonic activity have been found on the surface of these planets.

giant planets

Now let's get acquainted with the giant planets, which are also included in our solar system. It , .

The giant planets have the following general characteristics: 1) large size and weight; 2) quickly rotate around an axis; 3) have rings, many satellites; 4) the atmosphere consists mainly of hydrogen and helium; 5) have a hot core of metals and silicates in the center.

They are also distinguished by: 1) low surface temperatures; 2) low density of matter of the planets.

3. The sun is the central body of our planetary system

The Sun is the closest star to the Earth, which is a hot plasma ball. This is a gigantic source of energy: its radiation power is very high - about 3.861023 kW. Every second, the Sun radiates such an amount of heat that would be enough to melt the layer of ice that surrounds the globe, a thousand kilometers thick. The sun plays an exceptional role in the origin and development of life on Earth. An insignificant part of solar energy falls on the Earth, thanks to which the gaseous state of the earth's atmosphere is maintained, the surfaces of land and water bodies are constantly heated, and the vital activity of animals and plants is ensured. Part of the solar energy is stored in the bowels of the Earth in the form of coal, oil, natural gas.

At present, it is generally accepted that thermonuclear reactions occur in the interior of the Sun at extremely high temperatures - about 15 million degrees - and monstrous pressures, which are accompanied by the release of a huge amount of energy. One of these reactions may be the synthesis of hydrogen nuclei, in which the nuclei of the helium atom are formed. It is calculated that every second in the bowels of the Sun, 564 million tons of hydrogen are converted into 560 million tons of helium, and the remaining 4 million tons of hydrogen are converted into radiation. The thermonuclear reaction will continue until the supply of hydrogen runs out. They currently make up about 60% of the Sun's mass. Such a reserve should be sufficient for at least several billion years.

Almost all of the Sun's energy is generated in its central region, from where it is transferred by radiation, and then in the outer layer is transferred by convection. The effective temperature of the surface of the Sun - the photosphere - is about 6000 K.

Our Sun is not only a source of light and heat: its surface emits streams of invisible ultraviolet and X-rays, as well as elementary particles. Although the amount of heat and light sent to the Earth by the Sun remains constant for many hundreds of billions of years, the intensity of its invisible radiations varies significantly: it depends on the level of solar activity.

There are cycles during which solar activity reaches its maximum value. Their periodicity is 11 years. During the years of greatest activity, the number of sunspots and flares on the solar surface increases, magnetic storms arise on the Earth, ionization of the upper layers of the atmosphere increases, etc.

The sun exerts a noticeable influence not only on such natural processes as the weather, terrestrial magnetism, but also on the biosphere - the animal and plant world of the Earth, including humans.

It is assumed that the age of the Sun is at least 5 billion years. This assumption is based on the fact that, according to geological data, our planet has existed for at least 5 billion years, and the Sun was formed even earlier.

Algorithm for calculating the trajectory of a flight to a limited orbit with given characteristics

Analyzing the solution (2.4) of the linearized system (2.3), we can conclude that the amplitudes of the orbit along the X and Y axes depend linearly on each other, and the amplitude along Z is independent, while oscillations along X and along Y occur at the same frequency...

Algorithm for calculating the trajectory of a flight to a limited orbit with given characteristics

It is known that the flight to an orbit around the libration point L2 of the Sun-Earth system can be carried out by making one impulse in low Earth orbit , , , . In fact, this flight is carried out in orbit ...

Stars and constellations are one

In this section, we will consider how stars / constellations can both harm and help, what we should expect from the Universe. In the 12th question "Can the stars harm or help?" many noted equally that the stars can do much harm ...

Earth is a planet in the solar system

The sun - the central body of the solar system - is a typical representative of the stars, the most common bodies in the universe. Like many other stars, the Sun is a huge ball of gas...

In this paper, the motion of a spacecraft in orbit in the vicinity of the libration point L1 of the Sun-Earth system will be considered in a rotating coordinate system, an illustration of which is shown in Figure 6...

Simulation of orbital motion

The spacecraft in the vicinity of the libration point can be located in limited orbits of several types, the classification of which is given in the papers. The vertical Lyapunov orbit (Fig. 8) is a flat limited periodic orbit ...

Simulation of orbital motion

As mentioned in paragraph 2.4, one of the main conditions for choosing a limited orbit in the vicinity of the libration point L1, suitable for a space mission, continuously observed from the surface of the Earth ...

Our solar system

In order to understand the structure of such a gigantic object as the Sun, one must imagine a huge mass of hot gas that has concentrated in a certain place in the Universe. The sun is 72% hydrogen...

Surface study of the characteristics of the Sun

The sun - the central body of the solar system - is a hot ball of gas. It is 750 times more massive than all other bodies in the solar system combined...

Creation of a model for the emergence of the solar system from interstellar gas based on numerical simulation, taking into account the gravitational interaction of particles

As a result of the studies carried out (including those not included in the materials of this publication), within the framework of the accepted basic concepts of the formation of the Solar System, a model for the formation of planetary bodies was proposed...

Solar system. The activity of the Sun and its influence on the climate-forming factor of the planet

Nine large cosmic bodies, called planets, revolve around the Sun, each in its own orbit, in one direction - counterclockwise. Together with the Sun, they make up the solar system...

Solar-Earth connections and their impact on humans

What does the science of the sun tell us? How far is the Sun from us and how big is it? The distance from the Earth to the Sun is almost 150 million km. It is easy to write this number, but it is difficult to imagine such a large distance...

The sun, its composition and structure. Solar-terrestrial connections

The sun is the only star in the solar system around which other objects of this system revolve: planets and their satellites, dwarf planets and their satellites, asteroids, meteoroids, comets and cosmic dust. The mass of the Sun is 99...

The sun, its physical characteristics and impact on the Earth's magnetosphere

The Sun is the closest star to the Earth and is an ordinary star in our Galaxy. This is the main sequence dwarf of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. Belongs to the spectral class G2V. Its physical characteristics: Weight 1...

FROM sun
The SUN, the central body of the solar system, a hot plasma ball, a typical G2 dwarf star. Among the stars, the Sun occupies an average position in size and brightness, although in the solar neighborhood, most stars are smaller and brighter. The surface temperature is about 5800 K. The rotation of the Sun around the axis occurs in the same direction as the Earth (from west to east), the rotation axis forms an angle of 82 ° 45 "with the plane of the Earth's orbit (ecliptic). One revolution relative to the Earth takes 27.275 day (synodic period of revolution), relative to fixed stars - for 25.38 days (sidereal period of revolution).The period of rotation (synodic) varies from 27 days at the equator to 32 days at the poles.The chemical composition determined from the analysis of the solar spectrum: hydrogen - about 90%, helium - 10%, other elements - less than 0.1% (by number of atoms).Like all stars, it is a ball of hot gas, and the source of energy is nuclear fusion occurring in its bowels. at a distance of 149.6 million km from the Sun, receives about 2 . 10 17 Watts of solar radiant energy. The sun is the main source of energy for all processes taking place on the globe. The entire biosphere, life exists only due to solar energy. Many terrestrial processes are influenced by the corpuscular radiation of the Sun.

Precise measurements show that the Sun's diameter of 1,392,000 km is not a constant value. About fifteen years ago, astronomers discovered that the Sun grows thinner and fatter by several kilometers every 2 hours and 40 minutes, and this period remains strictly constant. With a period of 2 hours 40 minutes, the luminosity of the Sun, that is, the energy radiated by it, also changes by a fraction of a percent.

Indications that the diameter of the Sun also experiences very slow fluctuations with a significant range were obtained by analyzing the results of astronomical observations many years ago. Accurate measurements of the duration of solar eclipses, as well as the passage of Mercury and Venus across the disk of the Sun, showed that in the 17th century the diameter of the Sun exceeded the current one by about 2000 km, that is, by 0.1%.

Structure of the Sun

On top of the nucleus is the RADIATION ZONE, where high-energy photons formed in the process of nuclear fusion collide with electrons and ions, generating repeated light and thermal radiation.

On the outer side of the radiation zone lies the CONVECTIVE ZONE (the outer layer 150-200 thousand km thick, located directly under the photosphere), into which heated gas flows are directed upwards, give up their energy to the surface layers and, flowing down, are reheated. Convective flows lead to the fact that the solar surface has a cellular appearance (granulation of the photosphere), sunspots, spicules, etc. The intensity of plasma processes on the Sun periodically changes (11-year period - solar activity).

In contrast to this theory that our Sun consists mainly of hydrogen, on January 10, 2002, the hypothesis of Oliver Manuel, professor of nuclear chemistry at the University of Missouri-Rolland, was discussed at the 199th conference of the American Astronomical Society, stating that the main mass of the Sun is not hydrogen, but iron. In "The Origin of the Solar System with an Iron-rich Sun", he states that the hydrogen fusion reaction, which provides some of the sun's heat, takes place near the surface of the Sun. But the main heat is released from the core of the Sun, which consists mainly of iron. The theory presented in the article of the origin of the solar system from a supernova explosion, after which the Sun was formed from its compressed core, and planets from matter ejected into space, was put forward in 1975 together with Dr. Dwarka Das Sabu (Dwarka Das Sabu).

solar radiation

SOLAR SPECTRUM - the distribution of the energy of the electromagnetic radiation of the Sun in the wavelength range from a few fractions of a nm (gamma radiation) to meter radio waves. In the visible region, the solar spectrum is close to the spectrum of an absolutely black body at a temperature of about 5800 K; has an energy maximum in the region of 430-500 nm. The solar spectrum is a continuous spectrum, on which more than 20 thousand absorption lines (Fraunhofer lines) of various chemical elements are superimposed.

RADIO EMISSION - electromagnetic radiation of the Sun in the range from millimeter to meter waves, arising in the region from the lower chromosphere to the solar corona. Distinguish thermal radio emission of the "calm" Sun; radiation of active regions in the atmosphere above sunspots; sporadic radiation usually associated with solar flares.

UV RADIATION - short-wave electromagnetic radiation (400-10 nm), which accounts for approx. 9% of all solar radiation energy. The ultraviolet radiation of the Sun ionizes the gases of the upper layers of the earth's atmosphere, which leads to the formation of the ionosphere.

SOLAR RADIATION - electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation of the Sun. Electromagnetic radiation covers the wavelength range from gamma radiation to radio waves, its energy maximum falls on the visible part of the spectrum. The corpuscular component of solar radiation consists mainly of protons and electrons (see solar wind).

SOLAR MAGNETISM - magnetic fields on the Sun, extending beyond the orbit of Pluto, ordering the movement of solar plasma, causing solar flares, the existence of prominences, etc. The average magnetic field strength in the photosphere is 1 Oe (79.6 A / m), local magnetic fields, for example, in the region of sunspots, they can reach several thousand Oe. Periodic increases in solar magnetism determine solar activity. The source of solar magnetism is the complex motions of plasma in the bowels of the Sun. Specialists of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena (California, USA) managed to find out the reason for the formation of loops in the magnetic field of the Sun. As it turned out, the loops owe their appearance to the fact that magnetic waves near the Sun are Alfvén. Changes in the magnetic field were recorded with the instruments of the Ulysses interplanetary probe.
SOLAR CONSTANT - the total solar energy falling per unit area of ​​the upper layers of the earth's atmosphere per unit time, calculated taking into account the average distance from the Earth to the Sun. Its value is about 1.37 kW / m2 (0.5% accuracy). Contrary to the name, this value does not remain strictly constant, changing slightly during the solar cycle (0.2% fluctuation). In particular, the appearance of a large group of sunspots reduces it by about 1%. There are also longer-term changes.

In the last two decades, it has been noticed that the level of solar radiation during the period of its minimum activity has increased by about 0.05% per decade.

solar atmosphere

The entire solar atmosphere is constantly fluctuating. It propagates both vertical and horizontal waves with lengths of several thousand kilometers. The oscillations are resonant in nature and occur with a period of about 5 minutes (from 3 to 10 minutes). The oscillation speeds are extremely small - tens of centimeters per second.

Photosphere

New images of the edge of the solar disk in 2002 by the Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope on La Palma, Canary Islands, revealed landscapes of mountains, valleys and walls of fire, showing for the first time the three-dimensional structure of the solar surface. New images have made it possible to see the shifting peaks and lows of superhot plasma - the difference in their height can reach hundreds of kilometers.

granulation- the granular structure of the solar photosphere visible through a telescope. It is a collection of a large number of closely spaced granules - bright isolated formations with a diameter of 500-1000 km, covering the entire disk of the Sun. A separate granule arises, grows and then disintegrates in 5-10 minutes. The intergranular distance reaches a width of 300-500 km. At the same time, about a million granules are observed on the Sun. pores- dark rounded formations with a diameter of several hundred kilometers, appearing in groups in the gaps between photospheric granules. Some pores, when enlarged, turn into sunspots. torch- bright region of the solar photosphere (chains of bright granules, usually surrounding a group of sunspots). The appearance of faculae is associated with the subsequent occurrence of sunspots in their vicinity and, in general, with solar activity. They have a size of about 30,000 km and a temperature of 2000 K above ambient. Torches are jagged walls that reach a height of 300 kilometers. Moreover, these walls radiate much more energy than astronomers expected. It is even possible that it was they who caused epoch-making changes in the earth's climate. The total area of ​​chains (fibers of photospheric faculae) is several times greater than the area of ​​spots, and photospheric faculae exist on average longer than spots - sometimes 3-4 months. During the years of maximum solar activity, photospheric faculae can occupy up to 10% of the entire surface of the Sun.

sunspot- an area on the Sun where the temperature is lower (areas with a strong magnetic field) than in the surrounding photosphere. Therefore, sunspots appear relatively darker. The cooling effect is caused by the presence of a strong magnetic field concentrated in the spot zone. The magnetic field prevents the formation of convective gas flows, which carry hot matter from the underlying layers to the surface of the Sun. A sunspot consists of twisting magnetic fields in a powerful plasma vortex whose visible and inner regions rotate in opposite directions. Sunspots form where the Sun's magnetic field has a large vertical component. Sunspots can occur individually, but often they form groups or pairs of opposite magnetic polarity. They develop from pores, can reach 100 thousand km (the smallest 1000-2000 km) in diameter, exist on average 10-20 days. In the dark central part of the sunspot (the shadow where the magnetic field lines are directed vertically and the field strength is usually several thousand times greater than at the Earth's surface), the temperature is about 3700 K compared to 5800 K in the photosphere, due to what they are 2-5 times darker than the photosphere. The outer and brighter part of the sunspot (penumbra) consists of thin long segments. The presence of dark cores in light areas on sunspots is especially prominent.

Sunspots are characterized by strong magnetic fields (up to 4 kOe). The average annual number of sunspots varies with an 11-year period. Sunspots tend to form nearby pairs in which each sunspot has an opposite magnetic polarity. During high solar activity it happens that isolated spots become large, and they appear in large groups.

• 
  The largest sunspot group ever recorded peaked on April 8, 1947. It covered an area of ​​18,130 million square kilometers. Sunspots are an element of solar activity. The number of sunspots visible on the Sun at any time varies periodically with a period of approximately 11 years. In the middle of 1947, a strong maximum of the cycle was noted.

heliographic longitude - longitude measured for points on the surface of the sun. There is no fixed zero point on the Sun, so heliographic longitude is measured from a nominal reference great circle: the solar meridian, which passed through the ascending node of the solar equator on the ecliptic on January 1, 1854 at 1200 UT. Relative to this meridian, longitude is calculated assuming uniform sidereal rotation of the Sun with a period of 25.38 days. Reference books for observers contain tables of positions of the solar reference meridian for a given date and time.

carrington number - number assigned to each rotation of the Sun. The countdown was started by R.K. Carrington November 9, 1853 from the first issue. He took as a basis the average value of the period of synodic rotation of sunspots, which he defined as 27.2753 days. Since the Sun does not rotate as a rigid body, this period actually changes with latitude.

Chromosphere

The gaseous layer of the Sun, lying above the photosphere with a thickness of 7-8 thousand km, is characterized by a significant temperature inhomogeneity (5-10 thousand K). With increasing distance from the center of the Sun, the temperature of the layers of the photosphere decreases, reaching a minimum. Then, in the overlying chromosphere, it again gradually rises to 10,000 K. The name literally means “colored sphere,” because during a total solar eclipse, when the light of the photosphere is closed, the chromosphere is visible as a bright ring around the Sun as a pinkish glow. It is dynamic, flashes, prominences are observed in it. The elements of the structure are the chromospheric grid and spicules. Grid cells are dynamic formations with a diameter of 20 - 50 thousand km, in which the plasma moves from the center to the periphery.

Flash - the most powerful manifestation of solar activity, a sudden local release of magnetic field energy in the corona and chromosphere of the Sun (up to 10 25 J during the strongest solar flares), in which the substance of the solar atmosphere heats up and accelerates. During solar flares, the following are observed: an increase in the brightness of the chromosphere (8-10 minutes), acceleration of electrons, protons and heavy ions (with their partial ejection into interplanetary space), X-ray and radio emission.

Flares are associated with active regions of the Sun and are explosions in which matter is heated to temperatures of hundreds of millions of degrees. Most of the radiation is X-rays, but flashes are easily observed in visible light and in the radio range. Charged particles ejected from the Sun reach the Earth in a few days and cause aurora, affect the operation of communications.

Clumps of solar matter ejected from the surface of the star can be absorbed by other clumps when both ejections occur in the same region of the solar surface, and the second ejection moves at a faster speed than the first. Solar matter is ejected from the surface of the Sun at a speed of 20 to 2000 kilometers per second. Its mass is estimated at billions of tons. In the case when clumps of matter propagate in the direction of the Earth, magnetic storms occur on it. Experts believe that in the case of cosmic "cannibalism" magnetic storms on Earth are stronger than usual, and they are more difficult to predict. Starting from April 1997, when a similar effect was discovered, until March 2001, there were 21 cases of absorption of clots of solar matter by others moving at a higher speed. This was found out by a team of NASA astronomers working with the Wind and SOHO spacecraft.

flocculi- (lat. flocculi, from floccus - shred) (chromospheric torches), thin fibrous formations in the chromospheric layer of the centers of solar activity, have greater brightness and density than the surrounding parts of the chromosphere, are oriented along the magnetic field lines; are a continuation of the photospheric torches in the chromosphere. Floccules can be seen when the solar chromosphere is imaged in monochromatic light, such as singly ionized calcium.

prominence(from lat. protubero - swell) - a term used for structures of various shapes (similar to clouds or flares) in the chromosphere and corona of the Sun. They have a higher density and lower temperature than their surroundings, on the solar limb they look like bright details of the corona, and when projected onto the solar disk they look like dark filaments, and on its edge they look like luminous clouds, arches or jets.
Quiescent prominences originate far from active regions and persist for many months. They can stretch up to several tens of thousands of kilometers in height. Huge, up to hundreds of thousands of kilometers long, plasma formations in the solar corona. Active prominences are associated with sunspots and flares. They appear in the form of waves, splashes and loops, have a violent nature of movement, quickly change shape and last only a few hours. The colder material flowing down from the prominences from the corona to the photosphere can be observed in the form of coronal "rain".

*Although it is not possible to isolate any single prominence and call it the largest, there are many amazing examples. For example, an image taken from Skylab in 1974 showed a loop-shaped, resting prominence that stretched over half a million kilometers above the surface of the Sun. Such prominences can persist for weeks or months, extending 50,000 km beyond the solar photosphere. Eruptive prominences in the form of fiery tongues can rise almost a million kilometers above the solar surface.

According to two research satellites TRACE and SOHO, which are constantly monitoring the Sun, streams of electrically charged gas move in the atmosphere of the Sun at almost the speed of sound under these conditions. Their speed can reach 320 thousand km / h. That is, the force of the wind on the Sun "interrupts" the gravitational force in determining the density of the atmosphere, and yet on the Sun the force of gravitational attraction is 28 times greater than on the surface of the Earth.

Dark absorption lines in the spectrum of the Sun and, by analogy, in the spectrum of any star. For the first time such lines were identified Joseph von Fraunhofer(1787-1826), who marked the most visible lines with letters of the Latin alphabet. Some of these symbols are still used in physics and astronomy, especially the sodium D lines and the calcium H and K lines.

Coronal lines- forbidden lines in the spectra of multiply ionized Fe, Ni, Ca, Al and other elements appear in the solar corona and indicate a high (about 1.5 million K) temperature of the corona.

coronal mass ejection(VKM) - the eruption of matter from the solar corona into interplanetary space. The ECM is associated with the features of the solar magnetic field. During periods of high solar activity, one or two ejections occur each day, occurring at various solar latitudes. During periods of a quiet Sun, they occur much less frequently (about once every 3–10 days) and are limited to lower latitudes. The average velocity of the ejection varies from 200 km/sec at minimum activity to values ​​approximately twice that at maximum activity. Most releases are not accompanied by flares, and when flares do occur, they usually start after the onset of the ECM. ECMs are the most powerful of all non-stationary solar processes and have a significant effect on the solar wind. Large ECMs oriented in the plane of the Earth's orbit are responsible for geomagnetic storms.

sunny wind- a stream of particles (mainly protons and electrons) flowing out of the Sun at a speed of up to 900 km/sec. The solar wind is actually a hot solar corona propagating into interplanetary space. At the level of the Earth's orbit, the average speed of solar wind particles (protons and electrons) is about 400 km/s, the number of particles is several tens per 1 cm 3 .

Supercrown

Solar Activity

solar Activity- various regular occurrences in the solar atmosphere of characteristic formations associated with the release of a large amount of energy, the frequency and intensity of which change cyclically: sunspots, torches in the photosphere, flocculi and flares in the chromosphere, prominences in the corona, coronal mass ejections. The areas where these phenomena are observed in aggregate are called centers of solar activity. In solar activity (growth and decline in the number of solar activity centers, as well as their power) there is an approximately 11-year periodicity (solar activity cycle), although there is evidence of the existence of other cycles (from 8 to 15 years). Solar activity affects many terrestrial processes.

active area A region in the outer layers of the Sun where solar activity occurs. Active regions form where strong magnetic fields emerge from the subsurface layers of the Sun. Solar activity is observed in the photosphere, chromosphere and corona. Phenomena such as sunspots, floccules and flares take place in the active region. The resulting radiation occupies the entire spectrum, from the X-ray range to radio waves, although the apparent brightness in sunspots is somewhat less due to the lower temperature. Active regions vary greatly in size and duration of existence - they can be observed from several hours to several months. Electrically charged particles, as well as ultraviolet and X-ray radiation from active regions, affect the interplanetary medium and the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere.

fiber- a characteristic detail observed in images of active regions of the Sun taken in the alpha hydrogen line. The filaments look like dark bands 725-2200 km wide and 11000 km long on average. The lifetime of an individual fiber is 10-20 minutes, although the overall pattern of the fiber region changes little over several hours. In the central zones of active regions of the Sun, filaments connect spots and flocculi of opposite polarity. Regular spots are surrounded by a radial pattern of fibers called superpenumbra. They represent a substance flowing into the slick at a speed of about 20 km/sec.

solar cycle- periodic change in solar activity, in particular, the number of sunspots. The cycle period is about 11 years (from 8 to 15 years), although during the 20th century it was closer to 10 years.
At the beginning of a new cycle, there are practically no spots on the Sun. The first spots of the new cycle appear at heliographic northern and southern latitudes of 35°-45°; then, during the cycle, spots appear closer to the equator, reaching respectively 7° north and south latitudes. This pattern of spot distribution can be represented graphically in the form of Maunder's "butterflies".
It is generally accepted that the solar cycle is caused by the interaction between the "generator" that generates the Sun's magnetic field and the rotation of the Sun. The sun does not rotate as a solid body, and the equatorial regions rotate faster, which causes a strengthening of the magnetic field. Ultimately, the field "splashes" into the photosphere, creating sunspots. At the end of each cycle, the polarity of the magnetic field reverses, so the full period is 22 years (Hale cycle).

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Exploration of the Sun by spacecraft

Orbital solar sbservatory("OSO") - a series of American satellites launched in the period 1962-1975 to study the Sun, in particular in the ultraviolet and X-ray wavelengths.

KA "Helios-1"- the West German AMS was launched on December 10, 1974, designed to study the solar wind, the interplanetary magnetic field, cosmic radiation, zodiacal light, meteor particles and radio noise in the circumsolar space, as well as to conduct experiments on recording phenomena predicted by the general theory of relativity. 01/15/1976 West German spacecraft launched into orbit Helios-2". 17.04.1976 "Helios-2"approached the Sun for the first time at a distance of 0.29 AU (43.432 million km). In particular, magnetic shock waves were registered in the range of 100 - 2200 Hz, as well as the appearance of light helium nuclei during solar flares, which indicates high-energy thermonuclear processes in the solar chromosphere. Reached record speed for the first time at 66.7km/s, moving with 12g.

Solar Peak Satellite("SMM") - American satellite (Solar Maximum Mission - SMM), launched on February 14, 1980 to study the Sun during the period of maximum solar activity. After nine months of operation, it required repairs, which were successfully completed by the Space Shuttle crew in 1984, and the satellite was brought back into service. It entered the dense layers of the Earth's atmosphere and ceased to exist in 1989.

solar probe "Ulysses"- the European automatic station was launched on October 6, 1990 to measure the parameters of the solar wind, the magnetic field outside the ecliptic plane, and study the polar regions of the heliosphere. He scanned the equatorial plane of the Sun up to the Earth's orbit. For the first time, he registered in the radio wave range the spiral form of the Sun's magnetic field, diverging like a fan. Established that the intensity of the Sun's magnetic field increases with time and has increased by a factor of 2.3 over the past 100 years.This is the only spacecraft moving perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic in a heliocentric orbit.Flying in mid-1995 over the south pole of the Sun with its minimum activity, and on 27.11. The year 2000 flew by for the second time, reaching the maximum latitude in the southern hemisphere -80.1 degrees. 17.04.1998AC " Ulysses completed its first orbit around the Sun.

Solar wind satellite "Wind"- an American research vehicle, launched on November 1, 1994 into orbit with the following parameters: orbital inclination - 28.76º; T = 20673.75 min.; P = 187 km.; A = 486099 km.

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory("SOHO") - A research satellite (Solar and Heliospheric Observatory - SOHO) launched by the European Space Agency on December 2, 1995 with an expected life of about two years. It was put into orbit around the Sun at one of the Lagrange points (L1), where the gravitational forces of the Earth and the Sun are balanced. Twelve instruments on board the satellite are designed to study the solar atmosphere (in particular, its heating), solar oscillations, the processes of removal of solar matter into space, the structure of the Sun, as well as processes in its bowels. Conducts constant photography of the Sun. 04.02.2000 Solar Observatory celebrated a kind of anniversary " SOHO". In one of the photographs taken " SOHO"a new comet was discovered, which became the 100th in the track record of the observatory, and in June 2003 it discovered the 500th comet.

FROMtraveler to study the corona of the Sun "TRACE(Transition Region & Coronal Explorer)" was launched on April 2, 1998 on rbit with parameters: orbits - 97.8 degrees; T=96.8 minutes; P=602 km.; A=652 km. The task is to explore the transition region between the corona and the photosphere using a 30-cm ultraviolet telescope. The study of the loops showed that they consist of a number of individual lanes connected to each other. The loops of gas heat up and rise along the magnetic field lines to a height of up to 480,000 km, then cool down and fall back at a speed of more than 100 km/s.